Pinoy Crim
JurisprudenceLaw EnforcementCriminalisticsCrime DetectionSociology of CrimesCorrectional Admin
Practice Exams

Module 7.2: History & Development of Forensic Science

I. Early Pioneers of Forensic Science

Long before the existence of formal crime labs, individuals from various scientific disciplines laid the groundwork for modern criminalistics.

  • Mathieu Orfila (1787-1853): Considered the "Father of Forensic Toxicology." A Spanish-born physician who became a renowned teacher of medicine in France. In 1814, he published the first scientific treatise on the detection of poisons and their effects on animals. His work made him a celebrated expert witness in poisoning cases.

  • Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914): The "Father of Criminal Identification." A French police clerk who developed the first systematic method for personal identification, known as Anthropometry or the Bertillon System.

    • Anthropometry: A system of identification based on taking a series of precise body measurements (e.g., height, arm span, head circumference).
    • Legacy: Though ultimately replaced by the more reliable method of fingerprinting, Bertillon's system was the first attempt to use scientific, objective measurements to identify repeat offenders. He was also the first to standardize the practice of crime scene photography.

  • Francis Galton (1822-1911): The first to conduct in-depth research into the science of fingerprinting. In his 1892 book, Finger Prints, he established that fingerprints were unique and permanent, and he devised the first workable classification system for them, which is still the basis for systems used today.

  • Leone Lattes (1887-1954): An Italian professor who, in 1915, developed a procedure for determining the blood group (A, B, AB, or O) of a dried bloodstain. His technique was immediately applied to criminal investigations.

  • Calvin Goddard (1891-1955): A U.S. Army colonel who perfected the science of firearms examination. He used the newly invented comparison microscope to determine whether a particular gun had fired a specific bullet. His work on the infamous St. Valentine's Day Massacre in 1929 established him as a preeminent figure in ballistics.

  • Albert S. Osborn (1858-1946): The "Father of Questioned Documents Examination." His 1910 book, Questioned Documents, remains a primary reference for document examiners. He established the fundamental principles of document analysis and the acceptance of documents as scientific evidence in court.

III. Locard's Exchange Principle

Locard's Exchange Principle, the cornerstone of forensic science, states that:

"Every contact leaves a trace."

In more detail: When two objects come into contact, there is a cross-transfer of material between them. The perpetrator of a crime will bring something into the crime scene and leave with something from it. Both can be used as forensic evidence.

This principle is the foundation of all physical evidence analysis. The job of the criminalist is to find, identify, and analyze this trace evidence to link a suspect to the scene or the victim.

A. Examples of Locard's Principle in Action

  • Hit-and-Run: A car strikes a pedestrian.

    • Transfer from Scene to Suspect: The car may leave the scene with fibers from the victim's clothing, the victim's blood, or hair.
    • Transfer from Suspect to Scene: The car may leave behind paint chips, glass fragments from a broken headlight, or tire impressions at the scene.

  • Burglary: A burglar breaks a window to enter a house.

    • Transfer from Scene to Suspect: Tiny glass fragments may be lodged in the burglar's clothes or shoes. Soil from the garden outside the window may be on his boots.
    • Transfer from Suspect to Scene: The burglar may leave behind fingerprints on the window frame, a footprint on the floor, or fibers from his gloves.

  • Assault: A suspect attacks a victim.

    • Transfer from Scene/Victim to Suspect: The suspect may have the victim's blood, hair, or skin cells under his fingernails.
    • Transfer from Suspect to Scene/Victim: The suspect may leave behind his own DNA (from sweat or saliva), fingerprints, or a button that was torn off his shirt during the struggle.

Board Exam Tip: You must be able to define Locard's Exchange Principle and provide examples. It is the single most important principle in all of criminalistics. The concept of a "two-way transfer" is key.

Conclusion

From Orfila's first tests for arsenic to the complex DNA profiling of today, the history of forensic science is a story of continuous innovation. Yet, through all the technological advancements, the fundamental principle articulated by Edmond Locard remains the same: every contact leaves a trace. The history of this field is a testament to the power of the scientific method to uncover truths that would otherwise remain hidden, making it an indispensable tool for modern justice.

Introduction

Forensic science as we know it today is the result of centuries of scientific discovery and the contributions of brilliant individuals who saw the potential of applying science to criminal investigation. Understanding this history provides context for the techniques used today and appreciation for the foundational principles that remain unchanged. This module traces the development of forensic science from its earliest days to the modern era, highlighting the key figures and their groundbreaking work, with a special focus on the cornerstone principle of the field: Locard's Exchange Principle.

Key Learning Objectives:

  • Identify key historical figures and their contributions to forensic science.
  • Explain the significance of Anthropometry and fingerprinting in the history of identification.
  • Define and thoroughly explain Locard's Exchange Principle.
  • Provide practical examples of Locard's Exchange Principle in action.

II. The Crime Lab and a Central Principle

While many individuals contributed pieces to the puzzle, it was a French professor who synthesized these ideas into a coherent field and established the first crime laboratory.

Hans Gross (1847-1915)

  • An Austrian prosecutor and judge who is credited with coining the term "Criminalistics."
  • In 1893, he published his landmark book, Criminal Investigation, which detailed how the principles of various sciences could be applied to the work of a criminal investigator. He envisioned a future where science was a routine part of police work.

Dr. Edmond Locard (1877-1966)

  • The "Father of the Crime Laboratory." A French criminologist and medical doctor who was heavily influenced by Hans Gross.
  • In 1910, in Lyon, France, Locard established the first-ever forensic laboratory in two attic rooms of the police department.
  • His most significant contribution, however, was not the lab itself, but the principle upon which it, and all of forensic science, operates.

IV. The Modern Crime Laboratory

The first crime lab in the United States was established in Los Angeles in 1923. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) created its national laboratory in 1932, under the direction of J. Edgar Hoover. This lab offered its services to state and local police forces across the country for free and became a model for the development of crime labs nationwide.

The proliferation of crime labs since the 1960s can be attributed to several factors:

  1. Supreme Court Decisions in the 1960s: Rulings like Miranda v. Arizona placed a greater emphasis on scientifically-validated evidence and less on traditional confessions.
  2. Increase in Crime Rates: Rising crime rates in the mid-20th century created a greater demand for police services and scientific evidence.
  3. The Advent of DNA Profiling: The discovery of DNA fingerprinting in the 1980s revolutionized forensic science and created a new, high-demand section in every crime lab.